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6. CLAIM TO TEMPORAL POWER. 103
an old archbishop of Bari, not even a cardinal, who had
been forced by popular tumult into the papal chair. If
Clement was not pope, he was merely young Robert of
Geneva, who had been elected by cardinals in rebellion
against their rightful master. In this uncertainty it was
impossible for thinking men or even for the people to
look upon either of them with the old reverence which was
given to a pope with an undisputed title. It was seen
also, very quickly, that neither would be able to reform
the Church as a whole, and that a general council was
needed, which, from the nature of the case, must be
superior to both ; and, therefore, to the papacy. Even
before this the very success of John XXII. in his conflict
with the Emperor Louis of Bavaria had shattered one of
the great mediaeval ideals, the majesty of the Roman Em
pire. The misconduct and mismanagement of the later
popes deprived half Europe of its other ideal the spiritual
dignity of the papacy. Thus, people on all sides began
to think for themselves, and to be less under the dominion
of traditions. The Councils of Pisa, Constance and
Basel, met and dissolved without effecting the serious re
forms which all men agreed were needed. The chief
result was the abolition of papal
"
reservations
"
at Basel,
and the partial restoration of the freedom of canonical
election. The papacy had its opportunity for self-reform
in the seventy years that followed, but it had become an
ambitious, intriguing, warring state among the other states
of Europe, and had lost all desire for serious reform. Even
when one who had been in favour of reform became pope,
as Pius II., he condemned himself for what he had done
as Aeneas Sylvius in defence of the Council of Basel.
Thus, the Protestant Reformation became necessary for
Europe, and it was embraced by all those nations, includ
ing Sweden, in which there was a sufficient interest in
theology, a sufficient knowledge of Holy Scripture, and
a sufficient sense of personal dignity and love of liberty
to enable them to venture upon a decided break with the
past. These nations were, generally speaking, those
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