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princes when he began his violent reforms. And their
coarseness, stubbornness, power, cruelty, and mystical
faith in the might of the Tsar rise up again in this
century in Nicholas. But even then Iván III. turned
to the different European courts in order to procure from
them physicians, artisans, and artists. He invited into
Russia foreign masons, metal-founders, and goldsmiths,
and caused architects and engineers to be brought from
Bologna and Venice. Iván IV. also caused handicraftsmen
to be brought from various parts of Europe; he
approached England and, in spite of the opposition of
the clergy, brought the art of printing into his empire.
In other words, in the more remote times the contrast
between the condition of the learners to the culture of
Western Europe and the originality in the strongly
marked institutions of the Muscovite Tsar and the
long-bearded Byzantine Russia (governed from a palace which
was a compromise between a barrack and a Greek Catholic
monastery) was far weaker, far less sharp, than since
that time. It was only when Peter I. at a blow abolishes
the dignity of the Patriarch, takes from the Greek
Church its landed estates, interdicts the national dress
(nay, the beard), even abandons the long Byzantine
costume in order to dress in an ordinary uniform, and
stations a herd of foreigners, more or less unscrupulous, but
unacquainted with Russian peculiarities, at the head of
all the affairs of the empire, that the tendency towards
Western Europe comes to the front as exclusive. And it
was only when Nicholas wrapped himself up in a decided
hate towards the ideas and reforms which emanated from
the liberal west, when he limited the number of the
students at each of the universities to three hundred,
discontinued instruction in the common constitutional law
of Europe, intrusted the philosophical instruction to the
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