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defeated by the Russians at Pultava (1709), and lost nearly the
whole of his army. He escaped into Turkey, where he w’as
hospitably received by the Sultan Achmed III. and supplied with
money. Here be resided at Bender, and induced the Sultan to
make war against Russia; but when the grand vizier had defeated
the Czar he was bribed by Katherine, the courageous wife of Peter,
to allow him to escape. This exasperated Charles and led to a
quarrel with the Sultan , who placed him in confinement.
Meanwhile Denmark and Saxony again declared war against Sweden.
Skåne was successfully defended against the Danes, but Elector
Augustus reconquered Poland, and the Czar took possession of
Finland. The resources of Sweden were now exhausted , and the
higher nobility began to plot against the king. At length Charles
effected his escape and returned to Sweden (1715), to find that
England, Hanover, and Prussia had also declared war against him
owing to differences regarding Stettin and the principalities of
Bremen and Verden. Having succeeded with the utmost difficulty
in raising money , Charles now invaded Norway with an army of
raw recruits and laid siege to Fredrikshald, where he fell at the
early age of thirty-six (1718), just at the time when his favourite
minister Görtz was about to conclude a favourable peace with
Russia. Brave, chivalrous, and at the same time simple in his
manners and irreproachable in conduct, the memory of Charles
is still fondly cherished by the Swedes. The short reign of
absolutism (Envalilsliden) was now at an end, and we reach a period
of greater independence (Frihetstiden; 1719-92).
Charles XII. was succeeded by his sister Ulrika Eleonora, who
with the consent of the Estates resigned in favour of her husband
Frederick I., crown-prince of Hessen-Cassel. At the same time
(1720) a new constitution was framed by the Estates. The supreme
pow’er was vested in the Estates, a secret committee consisting
of members of the three upper chambers, and a council or cabinet
of nine members of the committee , three from each estate, to be
nominated by the king himself. The king’s authority was limited
to two votes at the diet and a casting vote in case of an equally
divided assembly, and the cabinet was declared responsible to
the diet. In 1719 peace was concluded with England, upon the
abandonment of Bremen and Verden, and in 1720 with Prussia,
to which Stettin and part of Pomerania were ceded; then with
Poland and Denmark; and in 1721 with Russia, to which
Livonia, Esthonia, Ingermanland, and the districts of Kexholm and
Viborg in Finland had to be made over. The kingdom now enjoyed
an interval of repose , a new code of laws was drawn up (1734),
and efforts were made to revive commerce. The peace party was
derisively called ‘Nightcaps’ (nattmössor), or simply ‘Caps’, while
a warlike party which now arose was known as ‘Hats’ (hattar). In
accordance with the counsels of the latter, war was proclaimed
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