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486
IV. EDUCATION AND MENTAL CULTURE IN SWEDEN.
instruments, constructed by A. G. Theorell (1834/75), replaced the voluntary
work for the most part. Certain phenomena, such as the configuration of the
clouds, thunderstorms, and auroras, had, however, still to be taken personal note
of. Thus it was that a so-called First Class Meteorological Observatory came
into existence at Uppsala, it being the only one in Sweden. In 1873, H. II.
Hildebrandsson (born 1838) became its head. In 1878, the observatory, until
that time a subsection of the astronomical one, was made an independent
institution, and its head became professor of meteorology.
In 1870, K. B. Lilliehöök (1809/90) instituted a regular system of
observation on the state of the ice in Swedish navigable waters; these observations
are entrusted to officials in the Pilot Service.
Early in the seventies, Hildebrandsson with the aid of the Agricultural
Societies started a system of so-called Fourth Class Stations, at which notes
were to be taken of the state of the ice, of thunderstorms, of frosty nights
in the early autumn and låte spring, and of certain phenomena in the animal
and vegetable kingdoms. Later on, these stations were consigned to the
superintendence of the Central Meteorological Office. At about the same period of
time, Hildebrandsson organized an international series of observations on the
passage of clouds, more especially of the cirrus clouds. In 1878, H. E.
Ham-berg (born 1847), also with the co-operation of the Agricultural Societies,
introduced a system of so-called Third Class Stations, principally for registering
daily amounts of rainfall, but also for the observation of air-temperature, etc.
This system, too, has been taken in hand by the Central Meteorological Office.
During the years 1876/97, Hamberg conducted a special inquiry at the office
into the influence exercised by the forests of Sweden upon its climate.
In 1878, a Nautico-Meteorological Offi.ee was founded, to control and
systematize the observations made on ocean-going steamers and at lighthouses, and
also to take measurings of the level of the water off the coasts of Sweden and
in its lakes, and to make other hvdrographical investigations. Its head is F. G.
Malmberg (born 1831).
In the year 1900, the number of stations in Sweden where meteorological
observations were being made was: 1 of the first class, 63 of the second class
(9 being private and 20 lighthouses), 382 of the third class (24 being
lighthouses), and 91 of the fourth class.
Investigations upon the climate of Sweden have been made and published by
F. V. Ehrenheim (1753/1828), Edlund, Rubenson, Hildebrandsson, H. K.
Hamberg, and others; researches in dynamic meteorology have been published
by Hildebrandsson, H. E. Hamberg, N. Ekholm (born 1848), and others.
Several of these inquiries have been of direct practical use, as, for instance, in
the service of the weather department of the Central Meteorological Office.
Important from a practical point of view will also, doubtless, the investigations prove
that O. Pettersson (born 1848) and Hildebrandsson have begun — the former
in conjunction with hvdrographical work, the latter by a purely meteorological
method — into the reciprocal effects of the mean weather conditions at places
situated far apart. Very notable researches as regards dynamic meteorology and
hydrography have been made bv V. Bjerknes (born in Kristiania 1862; now
attached to the Private University of Stockholm) and his pupils V. Ekman
(born 1874) and ■/. V. Sandström (born 1874).
The hydrographical investigations, now proceeding, of the waters
encompassing Sweden, are of great interest and importance. They were commenced by
F. L. Ekman (1830/90) in 1868, and have been pursued subsequently by
A. Wijkander (born 1849), O. Pettersson, G. Ekman (born 1853), and
others; their work is amplified by the biological research carried on by Chr.
Aurivillius (born 1853) and P. 1. Cleve (born 1840). Above aU, however.
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