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iv. education and . mental culture.
Philosophy.
It was with the transplantation, in the 17 th century, of Cartesianism onto
Swedish soil that the science of philosophy came to be, for the first time, an
effective contribution to Swedish culture. This new tendency met with violent
opposition from the champions of theological orthodoxy, armed with scholastic
Aristotelianism; but it finally carried the day. The champion of Cartesianism,
during these days of strife, was J. Bilberg (1646—1717). The controversy found
expression in academic dissertations, or in theses and disputations founded on
them. Practically all discussions of philosophical problems during the 17th
and 18th centuries assumed that form; comprehensive and independent
investigations were seldom undertaken. The most prominent Swedish philosopher
during this period was A. Rydelius (1671—1738), who made it his chief effort
to mediate between theological orthodoxy and Cartesianism. Later, the philosophy
of Leibniz-Wolff had a notable Swedish exponent in N. Wallerius (1706—64).
The next period of evolution approximately coincides with the Gustavian Period,
when some literary leaders, under preponderating French and English influence,
expounded and elaborated the philosophy of enlightenment of that day. Among
them may be mentioned J. H. Kellgren (1751—95), K. G. af Leopold (1756—
1829), T. Thorild (1759—1808), and K. A. Ehrensvärd (1745—1800). With D.
Boethius (1751—1810), a thinker of more genuinely scientific calibre, the
philosophy of Kant was introduced — under violent opposition, it is true, from
the champions of "common sense". Kant’s system, in its turn, opened the door
to the great idealistic constructive system of Germany, in the principles of
Fichte, Schelling, and Hegel. This speculative system was chiefly represented in
Sweden by the keen and brilliant B. Höijer (1767—1812), whose most famous
work, Philosophical Construction, is translated into German. With a certain
independence, Höijer lived through and worked up the whole contemporary
development of idealistic ideas, originating from Kant, and reproduced it in a
form most nearly akin to Fichteanism. In the poems of P. D. A. Atterbom
(1790—1855) is mirrored the Romanticism of Schelling, although the
philosophical thought is not clearly expressed. Finally, immediately preceding our
own day, J. J. Borelius (1823—1909), devoted a long career as author and
academic teacher to the task of placing at the service of the philosophy of his
country the fruits of Hegel’s speculation.
But the philosophical spirit in Sweden has not only evinced a sensitive
receptivity for the results of general evolution in philosophy and retained a
certain independence in adopting them; it has also prompted a real national
philosophy, reflecting in thought the innermost essence and temperament of Swedish
culture. Its characteristic features concentrate their efforts on the freedom and
comprehensive development of the individual, while, at the same time, a well
regulated social order and a pure and living piety are preserved and advanced.
Thus the Swedish people combines in its ideal of culture law with liberty, and
faith with knowledge. It is to this tendency that the Swedish personal
philosophy gives a rational expression. Its chief source is in the loving reverence
for human freedom and self-determination; for right and duty, and for man’s
calling to eternal life in truth and righteousness. The national Swedish
phi-losophy is usually called by the name of its real founder, that most
independent thinker and independent "system atist, Kristofer Jakob Boström
(1797—1866, professor at Uppsala; his Works, edited by H. Edfeldt, are
completed by his Lectures on the Philosophy of Religion and on Ethics, edited
and published by S. Ribbing). The philosophy of Boström can be understood
and judged only in connection with the evolution of philosophical science, both
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