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iv. education and . mental culture.
by bis numerous writings, in the first place »Systema Mycologicum», became
one of the founders of the science of mycology and one of the greatest
mycologists of all time. Through the work of these men, a special interest arose
among Swedish botanists in the lower vegetable growths, an interest which
has been maintained in later times, as is proved by the fact that for a
long time almost all official representatives of botanical research were
specialists in some group or other of cryptogams. Swedish investigation with regard
to cryptogams was directed in the first place to classification and description
of species, but thanks to improved methods of research, which came more and
more into use, Swedish botany is in a position to register among its results
many important discoveries with regard to the lower forms of vegetable life,
propagation and other phenomena.
Algology was the branch of botany which was most studied, and among the
representatives of this branch the following names may be mentioned. J. G.
Agardh (1813—1901), who by means of a number of important writings, laid the
foundations for his reputation as one of the leading algologists of last century.
J. E. Areschoug (1811—87) made important discoveries with regard to the
anatomy and propagation of several families of algae, and his pupil F. R.
Kjellman (1846—1907) conducted what may be called classical investigations
with respect to alga flora in the Arctic seas and introduced the idea of
formation in the study of the alga regions of the ocean. V. B. Wittrock (1839—1914)
was a prominent investigator of the classification of several large families of algae
and O. Norstedt (b. 1838) is the greatest living authority on desmidiacae.
Finally, G. Lagerheim (b. 1860) bas published numerous works with regard
to the construction and development of the lower algae. Among the younger
botanists, we may mention in particular K. Bohlin (b. 1869), Nils Svedelius
(b. 1873), and H. Kylin (b. 1879), who have written a large number of
valuable algological works. Descriptive lichenology was excellently represented
by Th. M. Fries and since by J. Hedlund (b. 1861) and G. A:son Malme (b.
1864). Mycology has been taken up from a modern point of view by J.
Eriksson (b. 1848) and E. Henning (b. 1857), who have devoted their attention
especially to uredinae, by G. Lagerheim, known by his monographs on
interesting fungus families from a systematic point of view, and by 0. Juel (b. 1863),
who has made histological investigations of several different families; further
by Rob. Fries (b. 1876), who has specially studied myxomycetes, together with
T. Vestergren (b. 1875) and L. Romell (b. 1854). S. Berggren (b. 1837), S. 0.
Lindberg (1835—89), H. IF. Arnell (b. 1848), and others have devoted
themselves in particular to the study of mosses. The first-named has studied
especially the moss flora of the Arctic regions; Lindberg, who was born and
educated as a botanist in Sweden but afterwards became professor at Helsingfors,
has had a reforming influence on the classification of mosses by means of a
number of works revealing the keenness of his penetration.
Darwin’s theory of evolution imbued systematization with new life and gave it
new tasks to fulfil, and the relationship between various species and families of
plants were examined from new points of view. Particular interest was aroused
in the multiform or so-called critical families of plants, and in investigating
them efforts were made to study the course of development itself. Extensive
investigations have been carried out by Swedish botanists with regard to a great
number of such families, such as those by F. V. K. Areschoug (1830—1908)
on Rubus, by V. B. Wittrock on Viola etc., by A. Dahlstedt (b. 1856) on
Hieracium, and Taraxacum, on Rumex and Gentiana by Sv. Murbeck (b. 1859),
who also successfully applied geographical and morphological points of view to
his investigations.
In the second half of the 19th century, Swedish botanical research also ex-
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