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iv. education and mental culture.
famous mineralogist and accomplisher of the North-East Passage, A. G. Nathorst
(born 1850), the renowned phyto-paleontologist, and G. J. De Geer (born 1858)
have organised and commanded of a large number of expeditions to the regions
of the North Polar Sea, more especially Spitzbergen and Greenland, and 0.
Nordenskjöld (born 1869) one to the Antarctic; all of these have been of
importance in the history of geological development.
In the department of Quaternary geology there have won especial distinction:
O. Torell, the victorious champion of the theory of a general glaciation of
Northern Europe, Hampus von Post (1822—1911), and A. Erdmann, and also,
in more recent times, G. De Geer and H. Munthe (born 1860); of the two
last-mentioned the former, by determining for a series of localities the number
of the separate laminæ of the Late-Glacial clay, which he has shown to be
annual, has found himself able to calculate the lapse of time involved by the
retreating or melting down of the inland ice; the latter, on the other hand,
has proved that in the Post-Glacial period the Baltic was an enclosed
freshwater basin, the so-named Ancylus Lake. Of other still living geologists, Léon.
Holmström (born 1840) is known for his researches into the upheavel of land
and for contributions to Quaternary geology, as is the case too with A. G.
Högbom (born 1857), while G. De Geer and H. Munthe are famous for studies
respecting changes of elevation during Glacial and Post-Glacial periods. Högbom
has also been a busy writer on many phases of geological science. N. 0. Holst
(born 1846) drew attention to himself by the publication of papers on conditions
prevailing at, and deposits made during, Quaternary times, and Gunnar
Anders-son (born 1865), Pi. Sernander (born 1866), and L. von Post (born 1884) have
successfully pursued inquiries into peat-mosses and the Quaternary plant-world.
The following have won reputations for paleontological investigations: L.
Törnqvist (born 1840), G. Holm (born 1853), J. Chr. Moberg (born 1854), A. Hennig
(born 1864), and C. Wiman (born 1867); Hj. Sjögren (born 1856), H. Bäckström
(born 1865), P. J. Holmquist (born 1866), A. Hamberg (born 1863), and A.
Gavelin (born 1875) are specially noted as mineralogists and petrographers,
Hamberg also as a fjeld explorer; F. Svenonius (born 1852) is renowned as a
specialist on fjeld and glacier geology, Hj. Lundbohm (born 1855) and V.
Peters-son (born 1862) as ore-geologists; E. Erdmann (born 1840) has investigated and
described the Skåne coalfields, FI. Hedström (born 1867), besides doing other
geological work, has rendered able service to practical geology, especially as
regards the stoneworking industry, a remark which also holds good of Hj.
Lundbohm, mentioned above.
Physics.
It was comparatively låte that Physics was admitted as an independent science
in the Swedish university curriculum: at the beginning of the eighteenth
century it was always tacked on to some other subject, usually to mathematics.
The first strong impetus to independent physical research in Sweden was
connected with the general revival of learning in the middle of the eighteenth
century.
Anders Celsius (1701—44) was in the first place an astronomer, but devoted
himself also to physical research. He made photometrical observations on the
intensity of illumination in relation to the distance of the source of light, studied
the aurora borealis and terrestrial magnetism, observed how gravity varied
according as latitude, and so forth. His name is connected with the centigrade
scale, which he was the first to construct. However, he took the boiling-point
of water at zero, and the melting-point of ice at 100°: it was Linnæus that
gave the scale its present form. — S. Klingenstierna (1698—1765), a famous
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